Of  THE 

VERS, TV  Of  ILLINOIS 


THE 


Artesian  Wells  of  Denver 


R REPORT 


SPECIAL  COMMITTEE 


Colorado  Scientific  Society. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  SOCIETY. 


DENVER,  COLORADO. 

JUNE,  1884. 


THE 


Artesian  Wells  of  Denver 

R REPORT 

BY  A 

SPECIAL  COMMITTEE 


Colorado  Scientific  Society, 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  SOCIETY. 


DENVER,  COLORADO. 


JUHE,  1884. 


DENVER : 

News  Printing  Company, 
1884. 


x 


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£S~L4  9 
C.  V I ou 

Letter  of  Transmittal. 


To  the  President  of  the  Colorado  Scientific  Society : 

Dear  Sir  : — 

The  committee  appointed  by  you  in  February 
last  to  investigate  the  artesian  wells  of  Denver  and  vicinity, 
having  completed  their  examination,  respectfully  submit  the 
following  report.  Its  completion  was  somewhat  delayed 
through  the  inability  of  some  of  the  members  of  the  commit- 
tee to  do  the  work  assigned  to  them.  Another  delay  arose 
from  the  fact  that  it  was  understood  that  the  Denver  Chamber 
of  Commerce  would  undertake  the  publication  of  the  report 
for  free  distribution,  but  although  the  completed  report  was 
handed  in  to  the  Chamber  in  June,  it  was  not  until  July  21st 
that  the  report  was  returned  with  the  statement  that  the  Cham- 
ber of  Commerce  was  unable  to  expend  the  amount  necessary 
for  its  publication,  consequently  the  burden  of  printing  the 
report  has  fallen  upon  the  Society,  and  it  has  been  decided  to 
issue  it  immediately  and  in  advance  of  the  regular  publication 
of  the  Transactions  of  the  Society,  which  will  be  begun  in 
October  next. 

Respectfully, 

Whitman  Cross, 

Frederic  F.  Chisolm, 

Regis  Chauvenet, 

P.  H.  van  Diest, 

Committee. 


P'  6050S 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/detailS/artesianwellsofdOOcolo 


Introduction. 


The  discovery  of  artesian  well  water  in  Denver,  in  the 
spring  of  1883,  was  undoubtedly,  for  the  city  and  its  immediate 
vicinity,  the  most  important  event  of  that  year,  particularly  as 
the  numerous  subsequent  borings  have  demonstrated  the  pres- 
ence of  several  available  subterranean  water  courses.  The 
interest  awakened  by  this  discovery,  especially  along  the  east- 
ern base  of  the  mountains,  is  most  natural,  and  the  determination 
of  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  water  supply  which  has  been 
found,  becomes  of  importance  to  many. 

For  this  reason  the  subject  was  considered  worthy  of 
investigation  by  a special  committee  of  the  society,  with  the 
object  of  giving  to  the  public  such  information  upon  artesian 
wells  in  general  and  those  of  Denver  in  particular,  as  should 
make  plain  the  conditions  here  prevailing,  and  at  the  same  time 
enable  persons  in  other  localities  to  judge  whether  the  water 
courses  underlying  Denver  may  be  tapped  at  those  points,  or 
not. 

In  carrying  out  this  investigation  it  was  judged  best  to 
make  such  a division  of  labor  that  each  member  of  the 
committee  should  treat  the  subject  from  his  own  individual 
standpoint,  pursuing  a special  line  of  investigation  in  order 
thereby  to  economize  time  and  make  the  results  available  at 
the  earliest  practicable  moment. 

The  following  report  consists,  therefore,  of  four  separate 
sections,  or  reports,  as  follows : 

Section  I.,  by  Whitman  Cross,  defining  an  artesian  well  and 
giving  data  concerning  the  geological  relations  of  the  Denver 
basin,  its  extent,  etc. 


6 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


Section  II.,  by  Frederic  F.  Chisolm,  giving  the  history  of 
artesian  well  boring  in  Denver,  observations  of  individual 
wells  with  some  conclusions  and  recommendations.  Also  a 
brief  description  of  the  machinery  used  in  boring. 

Section  III.,  by  Regis  Chauvenet,  giving  the  analyses  of 
the  water  from  different  depths. 

Section  IV.,  by  P.  H.  van  Diest,  general  information  in 
regard  to  the  accumulation  of  subterranean  water  bodies,  here 
and  elsewhere,  rainfall,  etc. 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


7 


SECTION  I.— BY  WHITMAN  CROSS. 


Geological  Relations. 


DEFINITION  OF  AN  ARTESIAN  WELL 

An  artesian  well  may  be  defined  as  one  which  taps  a sub- 
terranean water  course  or  body  of  water,  at  a point  where 
it  is  under  hydrostatic  pressure,  the  latter  forcing  the  water 
to  rise  in  the  new  channel. 

That  all  artesian  wells  should  conform  throughout  to  the 
first  ones,  in  Artois,  in  France,  from  which  the  name  was 
derived,  is  by  no  means  necessary.  The  essential  conditions 
may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows  : There  must  be  an  inclined 
subterranean  water  course  with  impervious  material  above  and 
below  it,  and  the  inclination  must  be  more  or  less  interrupted 
at  some  point,  so  that  when  a new  channel  is  formed  (as  by 
boring,)  at  some  lower  level  than  that  of  the  source,  the  water 
will  escape  through  it  more  easily  than  by  any  other  outlet 
From  this  general  statement  it  is  evident  that  the  geological 
age  of  the  water  bearing  rock  is  of  no  moment.  Given  the 
conditions  above  mentioned  and  there  is  no  reason  why  water 
should  be  obtained  in  Cretaceous  strata,  as  at  Artois,  with 
greater  certainty  than  in  Silurian  or  recent  formations.  It  is  not 
even  necessary  that  the  water  course  should  be  in  stratified 
rocks,  although  it  is  plain  that  the  instances  in  which  the  above 
conditions  can  be  fulfilled  in  any  other  than  sedimentary  rocks, 
must  be  extremely  rare. 

It  is  commonly  found  that  the  area  within  which  artesian 
wells  have  been  secured  lies  in  a simple  synclinal  fold  or  a 
basin  of  sedimentary  rocks,  and  that  the  water  bearing  layers 
outcrop  at  some  distance,  and,  necessarily,  at  a higher  level 


8 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


than  the  site  of  the  wells.  By  a study  of  the  geological  struc- 
ture of  the  surrounding  country,  it  may  therefore  be  quite 
accurately  determined  how  large  the  area  is  within  which 
artesian  wells  may  be  obtained,  and,  in  some  cases,  the  depth 
at  which  a given  stratum  may  be  struck. 


GEOLOGY  OF  THE  COUNTRY  ADJACENT  TO  DENVER. 

That  Denver  and  the  plains  about  it  are  underlaid  by  sed- 
imentary rocks  of  Silurian,  Carboniferous,  Triassic,  Jurassic  and 
Cretaceous  ages,  has  been  clearly  established  by  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  under  F.  V.  Hayden,  and  is  well 
known  to  all.  The  two  lower  members  of  the  series  are  not 
exposed  within  the  area  of  the  present  investigation,  because 
the  deposits  of  later  ages  have  nowhere  been  eroded  to  a suf- 
ficient extent.  At  Perry’s  park,  Manitou,  and  Canon  City, 
however,  the  lower  strata  are  plainly  seen. 

Owing  to  a sharp  folding  of  these  sedimentary  strata  at  or 
near  the  contact  with  the  Archaean  granites,  gneisses  and 
schists  of  the  foot-hills,  which  extends  nearly  the  whole  length 
of  Front  or  Colorado  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  each 
stream  issuing  from  the  mountains  has  exposed  a more  or  less 
perfect  section  of  the  series  from  the  Trias  to  the  coal  formation. 
The  familiar  sections  at  Morrison,  Golden  and  Boulder  are 
examples. 

The  Hayden  map  of  this  region  shows  the  strata  of  the 
Laramie  or  Lignitic  group  to  immediately  underlie  the  surface 
at  and  about  Denver.  (This  group,  whose  geological  position 
is  not  definitely  settled,  will,  in  this  discussion,  be  considered 
as  the  uppermost  member  of  the  cretaceous  series.)  Unless, 
therefore,  the  wells  of  Denver  have  penetrated  the  Laramie 
and  have  passed  into  strata  of  a lower  horizon,  it  is  plain  that 
the  question  before  us  may  be  limited  to  a study  of  that  form- 
ation, its  character  and  extent.  At  least  no  strata  of  older 
groups  are  concerned  in  the  matter. 

The  geologists  of  the  Hayden  survey  did  not  recognize  any 
formation  of  later  date  than  the  Laramie  as  present  in  the 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


9 


district  immediately  adjacent  to  Denver,  but  the  researches  of 
the  present  United  States  Geological  Survey  have  shown  that 
the  Laramie  is  overlaid  by  a very  well  characterized  formation, 
which  may  be  easily  recognized  wherever  it  occurs,  by  the 
materials  of  which  it  is  made.  The  difference  is  simply  this, 
that  while  the  sandstones  and  conglomerates  of  the  Laramie 
are  made  up  of  minerals  and  rock  fragments  derived  from  the 
granites  and  gneisses  of  the  main  range  to  the  west,  the  later 
formation  is  composed,  in  a large  degree,  of  pebbles  and  frag- 
ments of  an  eruptive  rock  of  the  andesite  group,  one  of  the 
most  pronounced  Tertiary  rocks.  This  difference,  which  is 
plain  at  a glance  in  the  coarser-grained  beds,  may  be  easily 
detected,  by  microscopic  study,  in  the  finest  sand  layers. 

The  Tertiary  andesitic  pebble  beds  are  well  shown  in  Table 
Mountain,  at  Golden,  and  their  relation  to  the  coal-bearing 
formation  (the  Laramie)  is  clearly  seen  in  Green  Mountain,  near 
Morrison.  From  these  points  the  formation  extends  eastward 
as  far  as  the  Platte  at  Denver.  Leaving  the  description  and 
all  further  data  as  to  extent  of  this  formation  to  a forthcoming 
report  on  the  geology  of  the  Denver  basin,  by  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  we  will  proceed  to  show  why  this 
recently  recognized  formation  is  of  value  to  the  present  study. 

In  the  ravine  by  St.  Luke’s  Hospital  in  North  Denver, 
where  the  first  artesian  water  was  struck  in  the  McCormick 
boring,  the  lower  strata  of  this  Tertiary  group  are  exposed  as 
dark  and  light  sandy  beds,  containing  leaves  and  stems  of 
plants,  as  in  Table  Mountain.  Microscopical  examination 
shows  the  abundant  presence  of  augite,  hornblende  and  other 
minerals  derived  from  the  andesite,  of  which  small  pebbles  are 
also  found  occasionally.  At  240  feet  in  the  McCormick  bor- 
ing no  such  material  can  be  detected.  From  the  examination 
of  material  from  the  Windsor,  Metropolitan  and  other  wells,  it 
is  determined  that  the  lowest  layers  of  4he  Tertiary  andesitic 
beds  are  but  thirty  to  fifty  feet  below  the  level  of  Larimer 
street  in  East  Denver. 

The  artesian  wells  of  Denver  start,  then,  at  or  a little  above 
the  uppermost  layers  of  the  Laramie,  and  as  these  lie  prac- 


IO 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


tically  horizontal,  the  borings  have  very  nearly  the  entire 
thickness  of  that  formation  to  pierce  before  reaching  the  main 
coal  beds.  This  thickness  is,  as  shown  in  the  next  section, 
from  1,200  to  1,500  feet. 

Having  shown  that  the  water-bearing  layers  lie  in  the  Lar- 
amie, it  will  be  well  to  give  concisely  the  characteristics  of 
that  group. 


THE  LARAMIE  FORMATION. 

The  Laramie,  or,  as  it  was  designated  by  the  Hayden 
survey,  the  “Lignitic”  formation,  is  one  of  the  most  variable 
known,  i.  e .,  in  the  character  of  a given  stratum  at  different 
points,  or  in  the  sequence  of  strata  as  exposed  in  different 
places.  For  this  reason  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  give  a 
detailed  section,  but  rather  the  variability  will  be  emphasized. 
At  the  base  of  the  group  lies  a persistent  sandstone  series,  near 
the  bottom  of  which  the  workable  coal  layers  are  situated. 
This  series  has  a thickness  of  from  three  hundred  to  six  hun- 
dred feet,  or  even  more  in  some  places,  and  is  composed  of  a fine 
even  grained  rock  at  the  base,  while  near  the  top  fine  conglom- 
erates and  heavily  iron  stained  layers  appear.  Above  this 
sandstone  series  (which  embraces  thin,  unimportant  clay  lay- 
ers), comes  a series  of  alternating  clay  and  sand  strata  with  all 
possible  intermediate  stages  betwen  a typical  sandstone  and  a 
clay  bed.  These  layers  are  seldom  of  the  same  composition 
and  consistency  for  any  great  distance  laterally,  but  are  especi- 
ally subject  to  variations  in  thickness.  Thus,  a complete 
section  at  one  point  would  show  a prominent  sandstone  series, 
including  coal  strata,  perhaps  350  feet  thick  with  clay,  sand- 
stone and  intermediate  strata  above,  in  a total  thickness  of  about 
900  feet.  In  a section  a few  miles  distant  the  bottom  sandstones 
might  be  600  feet  thick,  and  the  mixed  series,  though  of  the 
same  total  thickness,  might  consist  of  clays  and  sandstones,  but 
in  different  relation  from  that  observed  in  the  first  case. 

With  such  a formation,  it  is  evident  that  no  calculations 
as  to  the  thickness  to  be  passed  through  by  the  borings  at  any 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


I 


given  place  can  be  very  accurate,  although  the  very  variabil- 
ity mentioned  serves  to  make  general  statements  comparatively 
safe.  The  thickness  near  Golden  may  be  roughly  estimated 
as  from  12  to  1,500  feet,  and  the  same  may  be  adopted  here. 

The  statements  in  regard  to  the  Denver  wells  are  fully  in 
accord  with  what  has  been  said.  The  strata  encountered  in 
the  various  wells  can  never  be  accurately  compared,  partly  as 
a consequence  of  the  usual  method  of  boring,  but  more  fre- 
quently the  observed  differences  are  to  be  attributed  to  the 
changeability  of  the  strata  themselves.  The  deepest  well  yet 
sunk,  that  at  the  Court  House,  strikes  iron  bearing  water  at  a 
depth  of  over  900  feet,  and  this  is  very  likely  from  one  of  the 
iron  stained  layers  near  the  top  of  the  sandstone  series  which 
forms  the  base  of  the  whole  group. 

Throughout  the  whole  series  small  layers  of  carbonaceous 
matter  are  found  and  these  produce  the.  substance  called  coal, 
which  has  been  announced  from  several  wells,  e.  g.,  Court 
House. 

The  variations  of  composition  and  texture  account  for  all 
the  peculiarities  noticed  in  the  wells.  The  numerous  sandy 
layers  at  one  place  are  accompanied  by  numerous  flows  of 
water,  and  the  more  porous  condition  of  a layer  in  one  well 
accounts  for  the  increased  pressure  and  amount  of  flow  over 
that  found  for  the  same  layer  in  another  well. 


FORM  AND  EXTENT  OF  THE  DENVER  BASIN. 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  clear  that  the  area  within  which 
the  water  courses  met  with  in  the  Denver  wells  may  be  found, 
is  practically  identical  with  the  coal  basin,  for  the  workable 
veins  are  very  near  the  base  of  the  Laramie  formation.  The 
western  border  of  the  basin  is  well  defined,  running  from  near 
Platteville,  on  the  Denver  Pacific,  along  the  south  banks  of  St. 
Vrains  and  Boulder  creeks,  passing  through  Erie,  Canfield 
and  Marshall,  and  from  the  latter  place  south,  crossing  the  var- 
ious streams  issuing  from  the  mountains,  and  being  mined  at 
Ralston  Creek,  Golden  and  Morrison.  The  Platte  is  crossed 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


J 2 

again  at  Archer’s  and  the  line  continues  on  southeast,  passing 
near  Sedalia.  East  of  the  Platte  the  plain  is  underlaid  by  the 
Laramie  for  an  unknown  distance,  but  the  artesian  basin  is  par- 
tially defined  by  the  presence  of  coal  at  Franktown,  on  the  D. 
& N.  O.  R.  R.,  and  by  several  outcrops  on  Coal  and  Box  Elder 
creeks,  east  of  Denver. 

Along  the  line  of  this  basin  from  Marshall  south  to  the 
neighborhood  of  Sedalia,  the  whole  thickness  is  exposed  and 
the  lower  part  at  least  is  upturned  at  a very  steep  angle,  being 
indeed  vertical  for  a large  part  of  the  distance. 

The  natural  streams  and  ditches  leading  from  them,  thus 
pass  over  the  edges  of  the  porous  sandstones  at  an  elevation  of 
from  two  hundred  to  six  hundred  feet  above  Denver,  and  the 
pressure  shown  in  the  Denver  wells  is  plainly  accounted  for 
On  the  east,  the  outcrops  on  Box  Elder  creek  are  also  some 
four  hundred  feet  above  Denver,  and  although  it  is  by  no  means 
determinable  how  much  of  the  water  supply  comes  from  the 
east,  it  is  very  possibly  a considerable  amount. 

The  shape  of  the  artesian  basin  is  thus  an  elongated  oval, 
whose  axis  corresponds  nearly  to  the  valley  of  the  Platte.  The 
length  along  this  axis  from  Platteville  to  Sedalia  is  about  fifty- 
six  miles,  and  the  breadth,  measuring  from  Golden  through 
Denver  to  Box  Elder  creek,  is  thirty-two  miles.  The  rim  at 
Golden  and  Box  Elder  is  nearly  four  hundred  feet  above  Den- 
ver. Whether  the  fold  shown  by  the  cross  section  of  the  basin 
is  deepest  under  Denver  cannot  be  well  determined,  but  it  is 
probable  that  the  Platte  follows  approximately  the  trough  of 
this  northeast  and  southwest  fold. 

If  the  outline  of  the  basin  above  indicated  is  correct, 
Denver  and  localities  in  the  Platte  valley  are  best  situated  to 
secure  artesian  water  under  considerable  pressure,  for  they  lie 
above  what  is  probably  the  lowest  part  of  the  fold  which  pro- 
duces the  pressure.  As  the  outcrops  of  the  Laramie  strata  are 
approached,  the  chances  of  obtaining  a well  with  pressure 
enough  to  cause  simply  an  overflow  diminish  rapidly. 

The  borings  at  Greeley,  Colorado  Springs,  Pueblo,  and  on 
the  great  plains  are  in  strata  below  the  Laramie;  and  hence, 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


13 


whatever  water  they  may  find,  comes  from  layers  different  from 
those  supplying  the  Denver  wells. 

In  general  it  may  be  stated  in  regard  to  outside  localities, 
that  if  the  Laramie  formation  is  present,  with  upturned  edges 
along  the  base  of  the  mountains,  the  chances  for  an  artesian 
well  are  good.  If  the  lower  members  of  the  Cretaceous  form 
the  surface,  it  is  probable  that  a water  supply  can  seldom  be 
procured,  although  it  is  in  each  case  to  be  determined  only 
when  the  geological  structure  of  the  region  is  plain. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  well  to  point  out  that  the  bottom 
sandstone  of  the  Laramie,  which  no  well  in  Denver  has  yet 
reached,  seems  likely  to  contain  a large  supply  of  water. 
Whether  the  density  of  the  sandstone  is  such  as  to  interfere 
with  the  transmission  of  pressure  is  something  to  be  determined 
by  experience  alone. 

It  is  also  probable  that  water  obtained  from  lower  horizons 
in  the  Cretaceous  formation  will  be  less  pure  than  that  which 
comes  from  .the  Laramie,  not  only  because  it  will  have  passed 
through  a greater  extent  of  rock  material,  but  because  the  lower 
beds  abound  in  soluble  salts,  such  as  sulphates  of  soda  and  lime, 
and  other  bases,  which  are  readily  taken  up  by  percolating 
waters.  Already  at  Greeley  a well  sunk  in  the  clays  below 
the  Laramie  formations  yielded  an  impure  water,  contam- 
inated with  oil. 


14 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


SECTION  II.— BY  FREDERIC  F.  CHISOLM. 


Data  Concerning  the  Denver  Wells. 


The  first  attempt  at  sinking  an  artesian  well  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Denver,  was  made  in  February,  1874,  under  the  charge 
of  Mr.  Eli  Brooks.  This  well  was  sunk  to  a depth  of  795  feet 
by  private  parties,  and  was  located  at  the  Cemetery  east  of 
Denver.  Three  water  bearing  seams  of  sandrock  were  cut,  the 
first  at  255  feet,  the  second  at  540  feet  and  the  third  at  780 
feet.  None  of  these  seams  showed  pressure  sufficient  to  bring 
the  water  to  the  surface,  and  the  attempt  was  finally  abandoned. 

The  subject  was  not  again  agitated  until  in  March,  1883, 
when  Mr.  R.  R.  McCormick,  who  was  boring  for  coal  near 
St.  Luke’s  Hospital,  in  North  Denver,  was  forced  to  abandon 
the  attempt  on  account  of  a large  flow  of  water  which  rendered 
further  progress  with  the  tools  in  use  impossible.  This  water 
was  characterized  by  its  extreme  purity  and  its  superiority  over 
the  water  furnished  by  the  Denver  Water  Company  from  the 
Platte,  and  the  interest  created  by  its  discovery  was  very  great. 
The  question  of  its  source  was  discussed  at  great  length,  and  it 
is  largely  to  the  emphatic  and,  as  later  proved,  correct  assertion 
of  Mr.  Horace  Beach,  the  United  States  Commissioner  in 
charge  of  the  government  wells  on  the  plains,  that  this  water 
was  artesian  and  not  derived  by  seepage  from  artificial  lakes 
near  by,  that  confidence  was  established  in  these  wells,  and 
boring  begun  extensively.  To  the  enterprise  of  Messrs.  Phillip 
Zang,  Thos.  G.  Anderson  and  H.  A.  W.  Tabor,  and  to  the  owners 
of  the  Lion  Brewery,  who  immediately  sank  wells,  is  largely  due 
the  establishment  of  the  fact  that  Denver  is  underlaid  by  econ- 
omically available  streams  of  artesian  water.  Since  that  time 
a great  number  of  wells  have  been  sunk  everywhere,  cutting 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


15 


these  water  bearing  sands,  and  the  number  of  wells,  which  is 
now  about  eighty,  is  being  steadily  increased.  Everywhere  in 
the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Denver,  alternating  seams  of 
impervious  clays  and  porous  sandstones  have  been  met  with 
in  the  Laramie  formation  to  the  greatest  depth  yet  attained- 
At  the  Court  House,  the  well  sunk  by  the  County  Commis- 
sioners reached  a depth  of  900  feet,  finding  at  that  point  a 
good  flow  of  water. 

There  is  considerable  difference  noted  in  different  wells  both 
with  regard  to  the  number  of  sandstone  strata  cut  and  the  pres- 
sure of  the  water  in  them.  In  some  cases  six  or  seven  have 
been  met  above  the  depth  of  375  feet,  while  in  others  only  one  has 
been  cut.  In  some  cases  the  seam  generally  encountered  at 
from  235  to  275  feet,  furnishes  a fair  supply  of  water  which 
rises  above  the  surface,  but  again  the  water  from  this  same  vein 
only  reaches  a point  from  ten  to  forty  feet  below  the  surface. 
Two  main  sandstone  layers  bearing  water  of  sufficient  hydro- 
static pressure  to  ensure  a regular  supply  without  pumping 
have  been  identified,  one  at  375  feet  and  the  other  at  600  feet 
depth,  at  the  corner  of  Lawrence  and  Sixteenth  streets,  and  the 
flows  from  these  two  seams  are  for  convenience  sake  named 
the  375  foot  and  600  foot  flows. 

The  pressure  from  these  two  different  seams  varies  greatly 
at  different  points,  this  variation  being  unquestionably  due  to 
the  character  of  the  Laramie  formation. 

The  difficulties  met  with  in  sinking  these  wells  have  not 
been  very  great,  and  are  due  mainly  to  continuous  cavings-in 
from  seams  of  shale  and  sandstone  above,  with  the  consequent 
clogging  of  the  machinery  and  breaking  of  ropes,  necessitating 
sometimes,  as  in  the  Court  House  well,  a delay  of  months. 

The  work  of  sinking  the  majority  of  the  wells  in  Denver 
has,  however,  been  very  simple  and  rapid,  the  progress  made 
being  frequently  seven  and  eight  feet  per  hour.  These  wells 
are  comparatively  inexpensive,  costing  for  drilling  about  $ 2.00 
per  foot  of  depth. 

•It  has  been  found  impossible,  with  the  time  and  means  at 
the  committee’s  disposal,  to  make  any  estimates  as  to  the 


1 6 ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 

average  pressure  and  flow  from  the  375  foot  and  600  foot  seams. 
The  extreme  variation  of  the  sandstones  of  the  Laramie,  within 
very  small  distances,  both  in  their  thickness  and  porosity 
renders  all  possible  estimates  unreliable,  and  both  pressure 
and  flow  are  likely  to  change  without  easily  apparent  cause. 
Roughly  estimated,  the  pressure  from  the  375  foot  seam 
seems  to  average  at  present  about  ten  pounds  per  square 
inch,  and  from  the  600  foot  seam  about  twenty-eight  pounds. 
No  satisfactory  records  have  been  kept  anywhere,  and  in  a 
great  number  of  cases  the  pressure  and  flow  have  never  been 
even  roughly  ascertained. 

There  are  now  approximately  eighty  wells  flowing  in  Den- 
ver, and  putting  the  average  outflow  of  each  at  twenty-five 
gallons  per  minute  throughout  night  and  day,  the  total  product 
of  the  wells  would  be  about  2,880,000  gallons  per  day  of  twenty- 
four  hours. 

If  this  estimate  be  compared  with  that  made  in  January, 
1884,  it  will  be  seen  to  be  considerably  less,  but  it  should  be 
recollected  that  the  January  estimate  was  made  in  the  crudest 
and  most  careless  way,  each  well  being  stated,  on  no  authority, 
to  produce  from  100,000  to  200,000  gallons  of  water  per  twenty- 
four  hours.  Necessarily,  however,  any  estimate  whatever  is 
incorrect,  and  will  be  so  until  laws  governing  the  manage- 
ment of  artesian  wells  are  made  and  enforced.  The  subject  is 
one  of  vital  importance  to  the  city,  and  action  in  the  matter 
cannot  be  too  strongly  urged. 

The  considerable  differences  in  the  pressure  from  the  same 
flow  in  wells  in  different  localities  is  readily  explained  by  the 
ever  varying  character  of  the  strata  of  the  Laramie  formation.  In 
one  case  at  210  feet  a vein  of  sandrock  was  cut  which  was  but 
seven  feet  thick,  very  compact,  and  did  not  furnish  hydrostatic 
pressure  sufficient  to  bring  the  water  to  the  surface.  Only  five 
blocks  away  however,  this  same  seam  was  found  to  be  forty 
feet  thick,  of  loose  sands  and  the  water  from  it  flowed  over  the 
surface  quite  freely.  The  differences  in  the  pressure  and  flow 
at  different  points  in  the  same  water-bearing  seam  are  undoubt- 
edly due  to  the  variations  in  density  and  thickness. 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


7 


Upon  the  subject  of  the  so-called  “magnetic”  water,  it  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  water  cannot  be  magnetic.  The 
magnetism  observed  is  located  in  the  casings,  and  is  due  to  the 
magnetizing  of  the  steel  drill  by  friction  and  pounding,  and 
this  magnetism  is  communicated  to  the  casing  during  the  pas- 
sage of  the  drill  when  lifted  and  lowered. 

The  position  in  the  sandstones  in  which  the  greatest  flow 
of  water  is  encountered  varies  somewhat,  being  sometimes  on 
the  top,  but  far  more  commonly  on  the  bottom  of  the  bed,  the 
rule  being  that  the  flow  in  any  one  seam  increases  as  the  bore 
advances  toward  the  lower  portion  of  the  sand. 


INDIVIDUAL  WELLS. 

The  Zang  well  in  north  Denver  was  the  first  sunk  after  the 
strike  of  water  in  the  McCormick  well.  In  this  well  the  work 
of  sinking  was  very  poorly  done,  and  many  inequalities  were 
made  in  the  bore.  At  first  the  well  was  not  cased,  and  the 
pressure  was  sufficient  to  force  the  water  to  the  top  of  the 
brewery,  a distance  of  about  fifty  feet.  Shortly  after  comple- 
tion the  flow  began  decreasing,  and  the  owners  then  put  down 
a four-inch  casing,  which  was  afterward  removed,  the  well 
cleaned  out  and  a six-inch  pipe  inserted,  and  seed-bag  pack- 
ing put  down.  Owing  to  poor  drilling,  however,  this  packing 
did  not  prevent  waste  through  upper  flows,  and  the  pressure  is 
now  so  low  that  only  enough  water  is  obtained  to  supply  the 
boilers  and  a small  neighborhood  demand.  Mr.  Zang  let  a 
contract  for  a new  well  to  be  600  feet,  or  more,  in  depth, 
and  work  was  begun  in  sinking  May  29th.  The  new  well 
was  completed  to  560  feet  depth  June  13th,  and  furnishes 
an  immense  flow  of  water,  estimated  roughly  at  400,000  gal- 
lons daily.  The  depth  of  the  old  well  is  300  feet. 

The  well  at  the  Lion  brewery  is  294  feet  deep,  of  which 
278  feet  are  cased,  the  diameter  of  the  casing  at  the  bottom 
being  two  and  one-half  inches.  The  pipe  is  packed  with  seed- 
bags.  No  diminution  of  pressure  was  observed,  the  head 
being  about  forty  feet,  until  the  wells  in  the  Denver  brewery 


8 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


and  the  Milwaukee  brewery  were  finished,  when  the  pressure 
decreased  considerably,  but  has  remained  unchanged  for  nine 
months.  At  present  the  flow  is  twenty  gallons  per  minute, 
and  the  head  about  twenty  feet.  The  decrease  here  was  un- 
questionably due  to  the  tapping  of  the  same  water-bearing 
seam  of  sandstone  by  other  wells  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 

The  Anderson  well,  near  the  Colfax  avenue  bridge,  was  first 
sunk  to  a depth  of  375  feet,  in  which  distance  water-bearing 
seams  were  cut  at  1 54,  244, 290,  350  and  375  feet.  The  well  was 
cased  with  three  inch  pipe  to  a depth  of  300  feet.  The  pressure 
at  first  was  twenty-five  pounds,  but  this  decreased  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  the  casing  was  taken  up  and  the  well  sunk  to  a depth 
of  6 1 o feet  to  cut  the  6oo-foot  flow.  Since  this  flow  was  cut  there 
has  been  no  diminution  whatever  in  the  pressure.  The  orig- 
inal decrease  was  probably  due  to  bad  work  in  sinking,  im- 
perfect casing  and  a lack  of  packing.  The  well  is  one  of  the 
typical  wells  of  the  Denver  basin,  and  the  different  strata 
passed  through  are  given  in  full,  as  illustrating  the  principal 
features  of  the  Laramie  formation. 

From  the  surface  the  bore  passed  first  through 


A seam  of  gravel  and  surface  wa;sh 12 

Clay 17 

Sandstone 1 

Hard  clay 94 

Hard  sandstone 8 

Clay  slate 22 

Sandstone  (first  flow  of  water) 14 

Hard  clay 24 

Sandstone 2 

Very  tough,  hard  clay 50 

Sandstone  (second  flow  of  water.) 16 

Hard  clay  . 30 

Sandstone  (third  flow  of  water.) 10 

Blue  clay 8 

Sandstone  (fourth  flow  of  water.) 12 

Soft  clay 15 

Dark  hard  clay 15 

Loose,  white  sandstone  (fifth  and  greatest  flow  of  water,)  25 
Total  depth  of  old  well 375 


feet. 

foot. 

feet. 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


9 


When  the  well  was  sunk  further  the  drill  passed  through 
alternating  seams  of  sandstones  and  clays  of  different  hardness, 
and  nothing  noteworthy  was  observed.  The  section  given 
here  is  substantially  the  same  as  that  found  elsewhere,  and  may 
be  taken  as  typical. 

The  Tabor  Opera  House  well  is  390  feet  deep,  and  is  cased 
with  four-inch  pipe.  Four  flows  were  cut  at  179,  220,  333  and 
375  feet.  There  has  been  a great  decrease  in  the  pressure 
here,  from  thirty-six  pounds  at  completion  to  about  five  pounds. 
Decrease  here  is  due  to  the  fact  that  only  190  feet  are  cased, 
the  lower  200  feet  of  the  well  having  caved  very  badly.  Some 
pieces  of  rock  of  high  specific  gravity  were  pumped  up  after 
the  flow  decreased.  The  flow  is  now  again  increasing. 

The  County  Hospital  well  is  633  feet  deep,  and  cased  for 
621  feet  with  five  and  five-eighths-inch  pipe.  The  first  flow  was 
cut  at  445  feet  and  the  second  at  628  feet.  The  head  is  about 
fifty-five  feet.  No  artificial  packing  was  employed. 

The  well  of  the  Anheuser-Busch  Brewing  Company  is  314 
feet  deep,  and  cased  the  full  distance  with  three-inch  pipe. 
Several  flows  were  cut,  only  the  fifth  being  used.  Three  seed- 
bags  are  used  as  packing.  No  decrease  noted.  Head  now 
forty  feet. 

The  Windsor  well  at  the  Windsor  hotel  is  533  feet  deep, 
and  cased  the  whole  distance.  Two  main  flows  were  cut,  one 
at  335  and  the  other  at  515  feet.  No  packing  was  used. 
The  head  at  completion  was  for  the  first  flow  twenty-five  feet,  and 
for  the  second  sixty  feet.  There  has  been  a great  decrease  of 
pressure  here,  and  the  water  is  now  pumped.  Roughly  esti- 
mated, the  head  from  the  lower  flow  now  is  about  twenty  feet. 
It  has  recently  been  discovered  that  a deposit  of  white  sand 
has  settled  in  the  bottom  of  the  well,  and  the  decrease  is,  in 
all  probability,  due  solely  to  the  resistance  to  the  flow  offered 
by  this  sand. 

The  Charles  well,  at  the  corner  of  Curtis  and  Fifteenth 
streets,  was  the  first  to  reach  the  6oo-foot  flow.  Its  depth  is 
580  feet,  and  it  is  cased  with  four-inch  pipe  for  564  feet.  The 
pressure  was,  when  first  struck,  and  until  October,  1883,  about 


20 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


seventy  pounds,  but  owing  to  other  wells  being  sunk  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood,  the  pressure  has  decreased  until  it  is 
now  about  twenty  pounds  only.  The  principal  flows  encoun- 
tered were  met  at  a depth  of  235,  364  and  564  feet. 

The  well  at  the  Milwaukee  brewery  is  354  feet  deep,  and 
at  first  was  cased  only  to  bed-rock,  but  later  a four-inch  pipe 
was  put  down  284  feet,  and  two  seed-bags  inserted  against 
hard  rock  for  packing.  The  head  is  now  about  fifty  feet,  and 
no  decrease  of  pressure  has  been  observed.  The  well  was 
completed  in  September,  1883,  and  none  have  been  sunk  since 
near  by. 

The  well  of  the  Denver  Brewing  Company  is  358^  feet 
deep,  and  is  cased  306  feet.  Flows  were  cut  at  150,  200,  306 
and  358  feet  depth.  The  pressure  is  said  to  be  about  twenty 
pounds,  and  there  has  been  no  decrease  up  to  date.  This  well 
is  packed  with  one  seed-bag. 

The  Spitzer  well,  on  Eleventh  and  Larimer  streets,  is  350 
feet  deep,  and  but  slightly  cased  at  the  top.  The  flow  was 
very  strong  at  first,  but  has  decreased  more  than  one-half.  It 
is  said  to  run  irregularly.  The  decrease  here  is  probably  due 
to  the  lack  of  casing. 

The  Denver  Water  Company  has  sunk  three  wells  near  the 
engine  house  at  the  works.  They  are  situated  in  the  angles 
of  a triangle,  the  sides  of  which  are  approximately  250  feet 
each,  and  were  so  placed  as  to  test  the  effect  of  wells  near 
each  other.  In  No.  1 the  first  water  was  struck  at  260  feet, 
which  yielded  eight  gallons  per  minute.  Second  flow  was 
struck  at  348  feet,  third  at  385  and  last  flow  about  555  feet. 
The  total  depth  of  the  well  is  587  feet.  The  total  flow  at 
completion  was  ninety-five  gallons  per  minute,  and  the  total 
pressure  twenty-six  pounds.  The  second  well  was  similar  in 
every  respect,  and  reduced  the  flow  from  No.  1 about  one-third. 
Well  No.  3 reduced  the  flow  from  the  other  two,  so  that  the 
total  flow  from  the  three  wells  is  but  little  more  than  that  ob- 
tained from  the  first  well  alone. 

Well  No.  4,  near  the  Rio  Grande  shops,  is  about  1,500  feet 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


2t 


away,  and  struck  all  the  upper  flows,  but  without  affecting  the 
others. 

The  Metropolitan  well,  at  the  corner  of  Sixteenth  and 
Holladay  streets,  is  545  feet  deep,  and  is  cased  360  feet  with 
eight-inch  pipe,  and  540  feet  with  three-inch  pipe.  The  upper 
flow  was  cut  at  365  feet  and  the  lower  at  545.  No  packing  is 
used.  The  pressure  here  is  very  great,  and,  it  is  claimed,  has 
increased.  The  two  flows  are  kept  separate,  and  the  pressure 
of  the  upper  is  twelve  pounds,  and  of  the  lower,  said  to  be 
eighty-five  pounds. 

The  Brown  well,  on  Capitol  avenue,  is  708  feet  deep,  and 
cased  with  8^,  7^$,  6^,  5^  and  4^-inch  pipe.  Three  flows 
were  encountered,  the  last  two  being  separated.  No  packing 
is  used.  The  pressure  from  the  lowest  flow  is  forty  pounds. 

The  Eckhart  well,  at  the  corner  of  15th  and  Stout  streets, 
is  580  feet  deep,  and  cased  with  four-inch  pipe  to  a depth  of 
565  feet.  There  has  been  considerable  decrease  in  the  flow 
here,  from  causes  unknown. 

The  well  at  Riverside  Cemetery  is  370  feet  deep,  cased  with 
five  and  five-eighths  inch  pipe.  The  flow  here  is  extremely 
large,  the  head  about  fifty-five  feet,  and  there  has  been  no  de- 
crease since  the  completion  of  the  well. 

The  well  at  the  Electric  Light  Works  is  375  feet  deep,  well 
cased,  and  the  flow  here  has  always  been  unvarying  during  the 
ten  months  since  its  completion.  Unusual  care  was  taken  in 
making  tight  joints,  and  the  casing  was  very  carefully  put 
down.  The  well  is  one  of  the  most  reliable  in  the  city. 

The  well  at  the  Grant  Smelter  is  62 1 feet  deep,  of  which 
387  feet  are  cased  with  seven  and  five-eighths  inch  pipe,  and 
555  feet  with  five  and  five-eighths  inch  pipe.  The  first  flow 
was  encountered  at  130  feet,  the  second  at  180,  third  at  240, 
the  fourth,  the  first  large  flow,  at  325  feet.  Several  others 
were  cut  above  575  feet,  at  which  point  the  main  flow  was  en- 
countered. The  outer  casing  is  perforated  in  two  places  to 
admit  upper  flows.  The  well  is  packed  at  100  feet  with  a seed 
bag,  and  upon  this  seed  bag  300  pounds  of  cement  have  been 
set.  At  a depth  of  300  feet  another  seed-bag  was  put,  against 


22 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


a seam  of  clay  slate.  When  finished,  the  pressure  from  the 
upper  flows  was  thirty-five  pounds,  and  from  the  lower  forty- 
five  pounds. 

The  Villa  Park  well,  in  Barnum’s  sub-division,  is  760  feet 
deep,  and  cased  for  fifty  feet  with  nine  inch  pipe,  140  feet  with 
six  and  five-eighths  inch,  and  for  730  feet  with  five  and  three- 
sixteenths  inch  pipe.  The  first  flow  cut  was  at  650  feet,  and 
was  light,  the  main  flow  being  reached  at  750  feet.  No  pack- 
ing was  used.  The  water  here  had  a taint  of  sulphur  and  iron 
in  it. 

The  well  of  the  Steam  Heating  Company  is  three  hundred 
and  thirty  feet  deep  and  cased  for  two  hundred  and  eighty  with 
five  and  five-eighth  inch  pipe.  When  first  struck  this  well  gave 
a pressure  of  forty  pounds  per  square  inch  ; but  this  decreased, 
and  it  is  now  said  to  be  again  increasing.  At  first  the  supply  was 
estimated  at  180,000  gallons  daily.  This  well  is  packed  at  the 
bed  rock,  and  also  at  or  near  the  bottom  of  the  casing. 

The  Lindell  well  at  the  Lindell  Hotel  is  three  hundred  and 
sixty  feet  deep,  and  cased  to  the  bottom  with  four  inch  pipe. 
The  flow  here  has  been  perfectly  constant,  and  no  decrease 
has  been  noticed.  The  pressure  and  flow  have  not  been 
estimated. 

The  county  well  at  the  Court  House  was  originally  to  be 
sunk  to  a depth  of  1,500  feet,  but  after  reaching  a depth  of 
seven  hundred  feet  the  great  difficulties  encountered  and  the 
delays  caused  thereby  induced  the  abandonment  of  the  attempt 
to  go  below  the  nine  hundred  foot  point  where  a fair  sized 
body  of  water  was  struck,  which  differs  essentially  from  the 
water  of  the  upper  flows,  as  the  analyses  indicate.  The  well  is 
cased  separately  for  the  six  hundred  and  nine  hundred  and 
ten  foot  flows.  Below  six  hundred  feet  the  bore  showed  noth- 
ing interesting,  alternate  layers  of  sands  and  clays  following 
each  other.  The  flow  at  the  six  hundred  foot  seam  was  in  no 
way  different  in  pressure  or  volume  from  that  found  at  the  same 
depth  elsewhere. 

The  Gurley  well  in  North  Denver  is  five  hundred  and 
twenty-five  feet  deep,  and  cased  the  entire  distance.  The  water- 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


23 


bearing  seam  was  struck  at  five  hundred  and  ten  feet,  and  the 
casing  is  perforated  at  this  point  to  admit  the  flow.  The  flow 
is  a good  one  and  the  pressure  about  forty-five  pounds.  It  is 
packed  with  seed  bags  above  the  lowest  sand,  and  no  decrease 
in  supply  has  been  observed. 

The  Reeves  well  on  Boulevard  Highlands,  North  Denver, 
has  recently  been  completed.  It  is  five  hundred  and  forty-one 
feet  deep,  and  cased  for  five  hundred  feet  with  five  and  five- 
eighth  and  four  inch  pipe.  The  head  is  about  fifty  feet  and  the 
supply  about  fifteen  gallons  per  minute.  No  packing  was  used, 
but  the  pipe  is  down  firmly  into  the  sand  rock. 

The  Kinsey  well  at  the  corner  of  Eighteenth  and  Califor- 
nia streets  is  six  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  deep,  ancf  is  cased 
for  six  hundred  feet  with  four  inch  pipe.  The  sand  was  struck 
at  six  hundred  and  fifteen  feet,  and  the  head  furnished  is  about 
sixty  feet,  and  the  supply  approximately  sixty  gallons  per  min- 
ute. Flows  were  struck  at  two  hundred  and  eighty,  five  hun- 
dred and  eighty  and  six  hundred  and  fifteen  feet.  The  well  is 
thoroughly  packed  with  shot,  iron  filings,  beans,  etc.  The  up- 
per flows  are  cut  off,  and  the  lower  flow  only  utilized. 

The  Daniels  & Fisher  well  in  the  alley,  in  the  rear  of  Dan- 
iels & Fisher’s  store,  is  five  hundred  and  seventy-five  feet  deep 
of  which  five  hundred  feet  is  cased  with  nine  inch  pipe,  and  the 
remainder  with  six  and  five-eighths  inch  pipe.  The  two  hundred 
and  seventy-five  foot  flow  here  was  not  struck,  and  at  three 
hundred  and  fifty  a seam  of  water  bearing  sand  was  cut  which, 
however  did  not  furnish  pressure  sufficient  to  force  the  water 
quite  to  the  surface. 

The  McClelland  well  in  the  alley  behind  the  Tribune  build- 
ing, is  607  feet  deep  and  cased  for  542  feet,  with  five  and  three- 
eighths  inch  pipe.  The  flow  is  extremely  large,  being  estimated 
at  1 80,000  gallons  per  day,  and  the  head  about  sixty  feet.  The 
well  is  carefully  bored  and  well  cased  and  packed. 

The  Schindelholz  well  at  Twenty-sixth  and  Holladay 
streets,  is  416  feet  deep,  cased  to  the  bottom  with  three  inch 
pipe.  One  flow  only  was  cut.  The  casing  is  cemented  against 
a hard  clay  slate  seam,  ten  feet  above  the  water,  bearing  sand, 


24 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


with  a seed-bag  upon  which  cement  has  also  been  placed.  The 
head  here  is  forty  feet. 

The  Neighborhood  well  on  Twenty-ninth,  between  Champa 
and  Stout  streets,  is  460  feet  deep,  and  is  cased  with  three 
inch  pipe.  Flows  of  water  were  encountered  at  392  and  440 
feet.  The  pressure  here  is  thirty-two  pounds,  and  there  has 
been  no  decrease. 

The  Waverly  well,  at  the  corner  of  Waverly,  at  Twenty- 
third  streets,  is  860  feet  deep,  cased  for  579  feet  with  four  and 
a half  inch  pipe,  and  about  730  feet  with  three  inch  pipe. 
Flows  were  struck  at  310,  580  and  730  feet.  The  upper  flows 
are  shut  off,  and  the  lowest  flow  only  is  used,  this  giving  a 
head  of  fifty-two  feet.  No  packing  was  used.  The  well  sup- 
plies a neighborhood  embracing  some  four  blocks. 

The  Swift  well,  on  Twenty-eighth  street,  between  Champa 
and  Stout,  is  457  feet  deep,  and  cased  with  three  inch  pipe  for 
345  feet.  One  flow  of  water  cut  at  345  feet.  Pressure  when 
first-  struck,  thirty-two  pounds.  This  flow  has  decreased  since, 
until  now  the  pressure  is  not  more  than  eight  pounds.  The 
cause  of  the  decrease  is  not  known. 

SOME  GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

Careful  observations  of  all  the  principal  wells  in  the  Den- 
ver basin  show  that  in  some  cases  the  flow  from  the  wells  has 
been  uniform  and  unvarying ; that  the  greater  number  show 
some  decrease ; and  that  in  one  or  two  cases  the  flow  has 
practically  ceased. 

Those  wells  in  which  the  pressure  has  not  varied  at  all  are 
mainly  those  sunk  within  the  last  few  months,  and  in  which 
greatly  improved  machinery  was  employed  in  the  work. 
Others,  sunk  in  1883,  in  which  no  decrease  has  been  noticed, 
were  generally  characterized  by  great  care  in  the  insertion  of 
packing  both  near  the  surface  and  just  above  the  flows  utilized. 

The  variations  in  pressure  which  have  been  observed  are 
due  to  two  or  three  very  obvious  causes.  Perhaps  the  princi- 
pal cause  of  decrease  of  pressure  in  most  of  the  cases  noticed 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


25 


has  been  due  to  the  sinking  of  other  wells  in  the  immediate 
vicinity,  the  aggregate  capacity  of  the  wells  exceeding  the 
supplying  power  of  the  sandstones,  the  consequence  being  a 
lowering  of  the  head  in  all  of  the  wells  adjacent.  This  fact  is 
illustrated  well  by  the  variations  in  the  Charles  block  well  at 
the  corner  of  Curtis  and  Fifteenth  streets.  This  well  was  the 
first  to  cut  the  6oo-foot  seam,  and  for  a time  the  pressure 
remained  quite  constant,  ranging  from  sixty-eight  to  seventy- 
one  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  sinking  of  other  wells  to 
the  same  flow  was  marked  by  conspicuous  decreases  in  this 
pressure  until  to-day  the  average  may  be  put  at  about  twenty 
pounds  per  square  inch.  When  the  Daniels  & Fisher  well 
reached  the  6oo-foot  flow  the  pressure  in  the  Charles  decreased 
to  from  ten  to  fifteen  pounds,  afterward  recovering,  until  the 
completion  of  the  McClelland  well  in  the  Tribune  alley,  when 
the  flow  from  the  Charles  well  ceased  entirely  for  a little  over 
a day,  when  it  reappeared  with  a force  of  only  about  ten 
pounds  until  the  connections  on  these  two  wells  were  made, 
when  the  pressure  again  increased  to  about  an  average  force 
of  twenty  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  although  daily  variations 
are  noticed  within  a small  limit.  Mr.  Charles  also  states  that 
the  pressure  is  greater  during  the  night  than  during  the  day. 
Another  conspicuous  example  of  the  effects  of  sinking  new 
wells  near  others  is  shown  in  the  experience  of  the  Denver 
Water  company,  who  sunk  a well  555  feet,  obtaining  a flow  of 
about  ninety-five  gallons  per  minute.  A second  well  was 
sunk  250  feet  away,  and  when  the  same  seam  of  sand  was 
reached  the  pressure  in  the  first  was  diminished  so  that  the 
flow  was  only  about  two-thirds  of  that  obtained  at  first.  A 
third  well  was  then  sunk  at  a point  about  250  feet  from  each 
of  the  others,  producing  such  a decrease  in  the  other  two 
that  the  combined  flow  from  the  three  wells  exceeded  only 
very  slightly  the  capacity  of  the  first  well  alone.  Another 
well  sunk  1,500  feet  away  produced  no  apparent  effect  upon 
these  three  wells. 

Another  cause  of  a decrease  of  flow  is  imperfect  casing, 
which  allows  a waste  from  the  lower  flows  with  greater  pres- 


26 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


sure  into  upper  seams  of  sandstone  the  water  from  which  did 
not  rise  to  the  surface,  and  to  waste  into  the  surface  material 
just  above  the  “hard  pan”  or  bed  rock,  this  surface  material 
consisting  mainly  of  gravel  and  sand  intermingled  with  soil 
and  affording  an  easy  and  ready  passage  to  a large  volume  of 
water.  The  well  at  the  Zang  brewery  in  North  Denver,  is  a 
case  which  well  illustrates  this  fact.  This  well  was  the  second 
one  sunk  in  Denver,  and  the  machinery  and  tools  used  were 
of  the  crudest  form,  and  the  work  poorly  done.  Later  Mr. 
Zang  put  down  casing,  but  the  leakage  probably  continued 
outside  of  this  casing  into  the  sands  and  wash  above,  and  but 
little  or  no  improvement  in  the  pressure  was  noticed,  only 
enough  water  being  furnished  to  supply  the  boilers  and  a 
small  local  demand  for  domestic  use.  The  well  in  the  Opera 
House  is  another  example  of  the  same  fact.  This  well  is  390 
feet  deep,  of  which  but  200  feet  are  cased.  The  consequence 
has  been  that  there  has  been  considerable  caving,  and  the  flow 
has  decreased  from  thirty-two  to  two  pounds  per  square  inch. 
The  engineer  of  the  block  asserts  that  the  pressure  and  flow 
are  again  increasing. 

Fruitful  sources  of  loss  are  the  absence  of  or  defects  in 
packing  around  the  casing  to  prevent  the  escape  of  water  out- 
side of  the  casing  into  upper  seams  of  sand  rock,  and  imper- 
fect and  leaky  joints  in  the  pipe,  permitting  loss  which  steadily 
grows  in  volume.  The  great  waste  and  carelessness  which 
has  characterized  the  treatment  of  wells,  tending,  as  it  does, 
to  maintain  a steady  drain  upon  the  supply  also  diminishes 
the  head  and  capacity  of  established  wells. 

In  the  rare  cases  where  the  flow  has  almost  entirely  ceased, 
the  cause  may  be  attributed  solely  to  defective  work. 

The  greatest  care  in  putting  in  good  casing,  and  sub- 
stantial packing  with  seed  bags,  cement,  shot,  iron  filings,  or 
anything  else  which  is  suitable,  should  always  be  exercised,  as 
its  neglect  is  generally  the  cause  of  a decrease,  and  to  this 
neglect  the  expenses  of  reboring,  casing  and  packing  can 
always  be  attributed. 

So  far,  experience  has  not  shown  that  the  supplying 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


27 


capacity  of  the  sands,  either  of  the  37 5 -foot  or  6oo-foot  seams 
has  been  reached  by  the  aggregate  flowing  capacity  of  all  the 
wells  in  the  Denver  basin;  and  it  is  known  that  below  these 
two  main  water-bearing  strata  there  are  a series  of  others 
which  will  probably  be  reached  in  succession  to  a depth  of  at 
least  1,500  feet. 

An  interesting  fact  which  may  be  noted  is  that  since  May 
15th  there  has  been  some  increase  of  pressure  and  flow  in 
several  wells,  all  of  which  are  in  the  375-foot  seam.  Among 
these  wells  in  which  the  pressure  has  increased  are  the  Opera 
House  (pressure  doubled),  the  Eckhart,  Electric  Light,  and 
Steam  Heating  wells. 

This  increase  is  attributed  popularly  to  the  thaw  at  the 
source  of  the  supply,  and  this  supposition  seems  likely,  but  it 
is  noteworthy  that  so  far  only  the  upper  flow  has  been  affected. 
The  time  in  which  this  increase  has  been  noticed  is  too  short 
to  admit  of  any  positive  statements. 

The  question  of  preventing  waste  is  an  exceedingly 
important  one,  and  should  be  made  the  subject  of  new,  special 
legislation.  Most  of  the  wells  seem  to  rival  each  other  in  the 
quantity  of  waste  possible,  and  if  the  original  supply  has  limita- 
tions at  all,  it  may  possibly  be  exhausted  simply  by  extrava- 
gance and  ignorance.  The  benefits  to  be  derived  from  this 
artesian  water  by  the  public  at  large  in  obtaining  a pure  and 
healthy  water  in  place  of  water  from  the  Platte,  the  saving  of 
water  rents  to  large  companies,  the  advantages  to  machinery, 
together  with  a large  complement  of  other  reasons,  render  the 
abuse  of  this,  God’s  gift,  almost  a crime.  Though  legal  action 
under  existing  ordinances  has  not  yet  been  taken  in  the  matter 
of  regulating  the  use  and  abuse  of  the  artesian  supply,  it 
seems  likely  that  necessity  will  soon  compel  it. 


MACHINERY  USED  IN  BORING. 

The  tools  and  machinery  used  in  sinking  artesian  wells  in 
the  Denver  basin  are  usually  of  a very  simple  description.  A 
boiler  of  about  twenty-horse  power,  and  a reversible  link- 


28 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


motion  steam  engine  of  about  fifteen-horse  power,  furnish 
power  sufficient  to  sink  to  any  depth  necessary  here. 

The  engine  is  directly  connected  with  a “band-wheel,” 
which  oscillates  the  walking-beam.  At  the  further  end  of  the 
walking-beam  is  attached  a short  rope,  terminating  with  a tem- 
per-screw. At  the  lower  part  of  the  temper-screw  the  sinking- 
cable  is  attached  by  means  of  an  adjustable  clamp.  The  drill- 
ing portion  of  the  machinery  weighs  about  2,600  pounds,  and 
consists  first  of  a bit  of  the  kind  usually  called  a “club”  bit, 
which  is  screwed  into  the  lower  end  of  the  “augur-stem.” 
This  augur-stem  is  a rod  of  iron  about  thirty-two  feet  long 
and  three  and  one-quarter  inches  in  diameter,  and  upon  its 
upper  end  are  screwed  the  “jars”  or  links,  and  to  them  the 
“sinker-bar,”  which  is  usually  a three  and  one-quarter-inch  bar 
of  round  iron,  about  fourteen  feet  long.  To  its  upper  portion 
is  attached  by  screwing  a rope  socket  by  which  the  whole  is 
united  with  the  cable.  The  bit  is  a solid  mass  of  steel,  and  is 
dressed  out  at  its  lower  or  cutting  end  to  a width  of  from  five 
and  one-half  to  ten  inches,  according  to  the  diameter  of  the 
hole.  The  part  played  by  the  “jars”  is  very  important.  When 
the  entire  drilling  apparatus  is  lifted,  these  jars  are  extended 
to  their  full  length,  but  when  the  mass  is  lowered  the  drill 
meets  the  rock  through  which  it  is  advancing,  stops  and  is 
struck  upon  the  top  by  the  sinker-bar,  which  plays  through 
the  jars. 

To  enlarge  the  bore  or  smooth  its  sides  before  inserting 
casing,  a “ rimmer”  of  steel,  weighing  about  125  pounds,  is 
attached  to  the  lower  part  of  the  auger  stem  in  place  of  the 
bit.  The  drilling  rope  is  of  manilla,  from  i1/^  to  1 y2  inches 
in  diameter,  and  of  a length  necessary  to  complete  the  boring. 
This  rope,  after  passing  through  the  temper  screw  clamp,  is 
attached  to  the  “bull  wheel,”  which  is  connected  with  the  band 
wheel  by  a “ bull  rope.”  Above  the  well  is  a derrick  of  lumber, 
and  usually  about  64  feet  high,  which  is  used  for  lifting  the 
tools  and  drill.  The  stroke  of  the  walking  beam  is  adjustable, 
and  varies  from  about  1 5 inches,  at  the  upper  part  of  the  work, 
to  about  36  inches  at  the  lower  portion  of  the  well.  After 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


29 


three  or  four  feet  are  drilled,  the  drill  is  lifted  out,  and  the 
“sand  pump”  lowered.  This  sand  pump  is  a tube  of  light 
iron  12  feet  long,  and  with  a valve  at  its  lower  extremity. 
The  sand  pump  is  attached  to  a manilla  rope  ^ of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  and  is  lifted  by  a friction  pulley  on  the  band  wheel. 
Two  shifts  of  two  men  each,  a driller  and  a tool-dresser,  are 
employed.  Much  skill  is  necessary  in  the  driller,  who  regu- 
lates the  play  of  the  sinker  bar  upon  the  drill  by  means  of  the 
temper  screw,  and  the  success  or  failure  of  an  attempt  to  sink 
depends  largely  upon  the  driller’s  practical  knowledge  and 
experience. 

The  principal  difficulties  arise  from  caving  in  of  soft  strata 
above  and  from  loss  of  the  tools  or  sections  of  casing.  When 
great  trouble  is  experienced  from  caving,  the  bore  is  cased  to 
its  lowest  point  and  a drill  of  less  width  substituted.  Where 
tools  or  casing  are  lost,  very  difficult  problems  arise,  and  the 
greatest  judgment  and  very  expensive  tools  are  required  to 
remedy  the  difficulty.  Where  casing  is  lost,  a plug  of  iron  or 
“casing  spear”  is  generally  “jarred”  firmly  into  the  lost  joint, 
and  the  whole  lifted  out.  Where  tools  are  lost,  the  implements 
used  for  their  recovery  vary  according  to  the  circumstances. 

Some  very  difficult  feats  have  been  performed  in  this 
work,  sometimes  a hole  being  drilled  into  a solid  steel 
rimmer  over  a thousand  feet  down  in  the  well,  a thread  cut, 
and  into  this  thread  a screw  attached  to  the  cable  inserted  and 
the  whole  lifted  out.  As  elsewhere  stated,  the  cost  of  sinking 
an  artesian  well  in  Denver  is  about  $2.00  per  foot. 


30 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  0E  DENVER. 


SECTION  III.— BY  REGIS  CHAUVENET. 


Chemistry  of  the  Wells. 


The  following  are  the  analyses  of  some  Denver  artesian 
waters,  viz:  Anderson’s  well;  Windsor  well,  upper  flow; 
Windsor  well,  lower  flow;  Court  House  well,  lower  flow. 

Samples  of  the  three  first  were  collected  by  a member  of 
the  committee  and  forwarded  to  Golden.  The  care  with  which 
the  Court  House  water  was  collected  cannot  be  vouched  for, 
but  it  is  assured  that  every  care  was  taken  to  send  a correct 
sample  in  a clean  vessel.  Its  analysis  is  included  in  this  re- 
port, as  the  difference  between  this  and  the  first  three  waters 
named  is  great,  not  only  in  the  amount  of  solid  residue,  but  in 
the  presence  of  chlorine  in  noticeable  quantity.  Attention  is 
also  called  to  the  fact  that  in  this  water  only  was  lime  found  in 
excess  over  sulphuric  acid.  The  remarkable  similarity  between 
the  first  three  waters  is  seen  at  a glance. 

In  tabulating  the  results  the  probable  “rational”  analyses, 
both  in  grains  per  gallon,  [United  States  gallon  of  231  cubic 
inches,  or  58,320  grains,]  and  in  parts  in  100,000  is  given  first. 
Below  are  added  the  actual  results,  by  separate  constituents. 
Carbonic  acid  is  not  included,  as  it  was  impossible,  after  much 
delay  to  secure  any  suitable  apparatus  for  gas  determinations 
in  Denver.  The  analyses  are,  then,  simply  records  of  amounts 
of  solid  residues,  and  the  analyses  of  those  residues. 

Nearly  every  determination  was  made  in  duplicate;  several 
in  triplicate.  Qualitative  tests  for  the  higher  metals,  as  well 
as  for  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  iodine  and  bromine  failed  to 
give  the  faintest  reactions.  Upon  concentration,  faint  acidula- 
tion  and  treatment  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  an  almost  im- 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


31 


perceptible  tint  was  developed,  but  it  was  not  identified  as 
metallic,  nor  could  any  characteristic  reaction  be  obtainea,  and 
it  is  assumed  to  have  been  merely  caused  by  separated  sulphur 
mixed  with  the  small  but  inevitable  amount  of  inorganic  dust 
which  settles  in  every  atmosphere. 

The  soda  was  determined  as  follows : A portion  of  the 
water  being  evaporated  to  dryness  in  platinum,  the  residue 
was  taken  up  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  again  evaporated. 
The  residue  was  disolved  in  water,  filtered  from  separated  silica, 
and  precipitated  with  barium  acetate.  The  filtrate  containing 
all  the  bases  as  acetates  was  evaporated  to  dryness  in  platinum, 
and  ignited  strongly.  All  the  bases  now  remain  as  carbonates, 
and  it  remains  only  to  boil  with  water  to  extract  the  sodium  car- 
bonate, and  filter  from  the  insoluble  carbonates  of  barium,  cal- 
cium and  magnesium.  This  final  filtrate,  acidulated  with 
hydrochloric  acid  is  treated  in  the  usual  way. 

Thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  Chas.  A.  Gehrmann,  one  of  the  more 
advanced  students  in  chemistry,  in  the  School  of  Mines,  for 
valuable  assistance  in  the  course  of  the  investigation. 


ANDERSON  WELL. 


GRAINS  TO  GAL.  PARTS  IN  100,000. 

Solid  residue 10.41 17.85 

Calcium  Sulphate  ....  0.87 1.49 

Sodium  Carbonate  ....  8.22 14.09 

Sodium  Sulphate  ....  0.44 0.75 

Magnesium  Chloride  ...  0.10 0.17 

Ferrous  Carbonate  ....  0.03 0.05 

Silica 0.69 1. 1 8 


IO-35  17-73 

Lime  (CaO) 0.36 0.62 

Magnesia  (MgO)  ....  0.04 0.07 

Soda  (Na20) 5.00 8.57 

Ferrous  Oxide  (FeO)  . . . 0.02  . 0.03 

Sulphuric  Oxide  (SO3)  . . 0.76 1.30 

Silica  (Si02) 0.69 1.18 

Chlorine  (Cl) 0.07 0.12 


32 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


WINDSOR  WELL— UPPER  FLOW. 

GRAINS  TO  GALLON.  PARTS  IN  100,000. 


Solid  residue  . . . . 

. 10.03  . 

17.20 

Calcium  Sulphate  . . . 

Sodium  Carbonate  . . . 

• 7-93  • 

13-60 

Sodium  Sulphate  . . . . 

. 0.44  . 

0.75 

Magnesium  Chloride  . . 

. 0.10  . 

0. 1 7 

Ferrous  Carbonate  . . . 

. 0.03  . 

Silica 

1-05 

9.96 

17.08 

Lime  (CaO) 

- 0.35 . 

0.60 

Magnesia  (MgO)  . . . 

. 0.04  . 

0.07 

Soda  (Na20) 

• 4-83  • 

8.28 

Ferrous  Oxide  (FeO)  . . 

. 0.02  . 

.......  0.03 

Sulphuric  Oxide  (S03 ) . 

. 0.76  . 

1.30 

Silica  (Si02) 

. 0.61  . 

. . • . . . . 1.05 

Chlorine  (Cl) 

. 0.07  . 

...  • ...  0. 1 2 

WINDSOR  WELL— LOWER  FLOW. 


Solid  residue  .... 

GRAINS  TO  GAL. 

PARTS  IN  100,000. 

18.45 

Calcium  sulphate  . . 

. , O.92  . . . 

i-58 

Sodium  carbonate  . . 

. . 8.48  . . . 

14-54 

Sodium  sulphate  . . 

. . O.44  . . . 

0.75 

Magnesium  chloride  . 

. . 0.07  . . . 

0.12 

Ferrous  carbonate  . . 

. . 0.03  . . . 

. . 0.05 

Silica 

10.70 

18.34 

Lime(Ca  0)  . . . . 

. . . 0.38  . . . 

Magnesia  (Mg  Oj  . . 

. . . 0.03  . 

0.05 

Soda(Na20)  . . . . 

. . 5.I5  . . . 

8.83 

Ferrous  oxide  (Fe  O) 

0.03 

Sulphuric  oxide  (SO3) 

. . O.79  . . . 

i-35 

Silica  (Si02)  . . . 

1.30 

Chlorine  (Cl)  . . . 

0.08 

ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


33 


COURT  HOUSE  WELL. 

GRAINS  TO  GAL.  PARTS  IN  100,000. 


Solid  residue 

. 33.01  . . 

56.60 

Calcium  Sulphate  . . . 

. 0.36 . . 

0.62 

Calcium  Carbonate  . . 

. 1.64  . . 

2.81 

Sodium  Carbonate  . . . 

. 15-83  • • 

27.14 

Sodium  Chloride  . . . 

. 14.04  . . 

24.07 

Magnesium  Carbonate  . 

. 0.32  . . 

0.55 

Ferrous  Carbonate  . . 

. 0.06  . . 

0.10 

Silica 

32.88 

56-37 

Lime  (CaO) 

. 1.07  . . 

1-84 

Magnesia(MgO)  .... 

. 0.15  . . 

0.26 

Soda  (Na20)  . . . . . 

. 16.71  . . 

28.65 

Ferrous  Oxide  (FeO)  . 

. 0.04  . . 

0.07 

Sulphuric  Oxide  (SO3)  . 

. 0.21  . . 

0.36 

Silica  (SiOs) 

. 0.63 . . 

1.08 

Chlorine  (Cl) 

. 8.52.  . 

14.61 

5 


34 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


SECTION  IV.— BY  P.  H.  VAN  DIEST. 


General  Information. 


A small  proportion  of  the  area  of  any  district  consists  of 
river  courses,  even  if  the  channels  of  the  gulches  are  included, 
but  the  rain  falls  alike  on  the  whole  surface.  Evaporation 
removes  a great  deal,  but  an  important  part  reaches  the  under- 
lying rocks.  Some  of  these  are  sandstones,  allowing  water  to 
enter  them  easily,  others  are  clays,  shutting  off  the  passage  of 
water,  even  preventing  water  accumulated  in  a permeable  bed 
from  rising. 

Water  reaching  a permeable  bed  will  at  once  be  absorbed 
into  the  substance  of  the  bed,  besides  traversing  all  open  pas- 
sages, minute  or  large.  Water  reaching  the  impermeable  beds 
will  remain  on  their  surface  or  run  down  into  cracks  and 
fissures  in  the  rock. 

The  quantity  of  water  capable  of  being  held  by  ordinary 
sandstones  is  about  a gallon  to  every  cubic  foot.  A better 
appreciation  of  this  quantity  can  be  obtained  by  assuming 
beneath  the  surface  at  any  depth,  between  impermeable  beds, 
exists  a space  ten  miles  square  of  sandstone  thirty  feet  thick. 
We  can  calculate  that  this  sandstone  would  be  capable  of  con- 
taining between  forty  and  fifty  thousand  millions  of  gallons 
of  water  and  if  these  sandstone  beds  were  fed  from  above  by 
the  rainfall  of  a district,  of  say  a hundred  square  miles,  on 
which  the  rainfall  was  fourteen  and  one-half  inches  per  annum, 
(which  is  the  average  here,)  of  which  one-third  part  enters  the 
earth,  it  would  need  six  years  to  accumulate  the  quantity 
named. 

It  is  evident  that  the  underground  store  of  water  must  gen- 
erally be  greatly  in  excess  of  the  mean  annual  supply,  and 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


35 


although  really  dependent  upon  the  rainfall  ultimately,  is 
rather  dependent  upon  the  average  than  upon  any  particular 
season.  This  can  be  admitted  as  a rule  for  extensive  layers  at 
considerable  depth  fed  by  a drainage  area  of  fair  extent.  Shal- 
low permeable  layers  of  small  extent,  fed  by  local  seepage  will, 
of  course,  be  more  dependent  on  the  seasons,  and  the  flow  of 
wells  sunk  into  such  a permeable  bed  will  be  soon  affected  by 
a continuous  dry  season  or  a severe  frost. 

Of  the  rain  that  falls  upon  the  earth  at  any  place  during  a 
given  period  it  is  calculated  that  not  more  than  one-third  runs 
off  the  surface  and  enters  the  sea  by  rivers.  This  calculation  can- 
not be  very  exact,  and  must  vary  greatly  at  different  seasons 
and  in  different  climates,  but  it  may  be  taken  as  the  best 
known  approximation.  Of  the  rest,  part  is  evaporated,  part 
of  it  feeds  animal  and  vegetable  life,  but  an  ample  supply 
remains  to  enter  the  earth. 

The  Seine,  near  Paris,  carries  off  160,000,000,000  gallons 
of  water;  the  rain  surface  of  the  Seine  district  is  about  3,000,- 
000  acres,  on  which  the  yearly  rainfall  is  nineteen  inches, 
giving  460,000,000,000  gallons.  A third  thus  of  the  whole 
rainfall  forms  the  visible  water  stream.  Of  the  remaining 
two-thirds,  twenty  per  cent,  evaporates ; forty-five  per  cent,  is 
consumed  by  vegetation,  of  which  the  leaves  evaporate  a part, 
and  thirty-five  per  cent,  enters  into  the  earth,  or  twenty-three 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  amount  of  rain. 

Most  soils  absorb  water  and  allow  it  to  sink  down  to  the 
subsoil.  Beneath  the  subsoil  is  the  rock;  into  this  the  water 
penetrates  either  by  absorption  or  by  the  innumerable  crevices 
and  larger  fissures  that  break  it  up  into  fragments.  The 
water  may  run  for  quite  a distance  over  an  impermeable  layer 
below  the  subsoil,  but  finally  it  meets  with  a permeable  rock, 
and  through  this  it  runs,  now  through  a large  mass,  slowly 
and  with  much  friction,  and  now  into  open  cavities  or  through 
channels  conveying  it  horizontally  or  even  bringing  it  up  again 
under  the  influence  of  the  pressure  of  a column  the  height  of 
which  has  reference  to  the  level  of  the  spot  at  which  it  first 
entered  as  rain. 


36  ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 

As  the  greater  part  of  the  rain  falls  on  the  mountains  and 
high  grounds  and  the  rocks  are  generally  tilted  towards  the 
plains,  the  tendency  of  water  to  run  down  a slope,  which  is  the 
case  in  the  interior  of  the  earth  as  on  its  surface,  ensures  the  con- 
veyance of  ample  supplies. 

As  the  dip  of  the  strata  is  not  always  the  same  as  the 
natural  slope  of  the  surface,  it  will  happen  that  the  water  enter- 
ing the  strata  above  will  issue  at  some  lower  level  at  a distance 
and  well  up  at  a fault,  or  at  some  artificial  cutting,  and  reach 
the  surface  again,  but  always  at  a lower  level  than  that  at  which 
it  entered. 

The  study  of  a map  of  the  surroundings  of  Denver  shows 
that  the  city  lies  about  in  the  centre  of  the  curve  of  a horse 
shoe  basin.  The  curve  extends  from  Golden  southerly  to 
a mile  and  a half  east  of  Morrison,  thence  south  and  south- 
easterly to  a point  about  four  miles  south  of  Archers,  thence 
northerly  along  the  High  Line  ditch  to  a point  two  miles  east 
of  Platte  Junction,  thence  east,  north-east,  crossing  Coal 
Creek  towards  the  Box  Elder.  This  line  connects  points 
5,650  feet  above  the  sea  level  and  400  feet  above  the  centre  of 
Denver. 

On  the  west  and  south-west  and  at  some  spots  on  the 
east,  this  line  coincides  with  a line  of  the  coal  outcrop,  the 
lowest  strata  of  the  Laramie.  Layers  cropping  along  this  line 
may  reach,  as  is  mentioned  in  another  part  of  this  report, 
1,500  feet  below  Denver. 

Rain,  falling  outside  this  limit  upon  permeable  sand  and 
limestone  outcroppings  will  be  carried  to  a greater  depth  and 
may  find  ultimately  natural  outlets  at  points  of  lower  altitude 
than  Denver,  a circumstance  which  would  affect  and  diminish 
considerably  the  pressure  when  such  strata  were  reached  by 
boring  at  Denver.  Besides  it  must  be  expected  that  below 
the  coal  at  least  1,500  feet  of  clays  must  be  bored  through,  as 
was  demonstrated  by  the  well  at  Greeley.  Thus  in  all  about 
3,000  feet,  before  water  layers  of  any  account  can  be  expected, 
fed  by  rainfall  outside  of  the  above  indicated  curve.  Water 
entering  the  soil  a few  miles  north  of  Denver  will  not  contribute 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


37 


much  to  the  artesian  supply  of  the  city.  Such  water  will  be 
compelled  to  flow  with  the  dip  in  a northerly  direction  towards 
natural  outlets  lower  than  Denver. 

The  above  mentioned  horseshoe  curve,  closed  by  an  east 
and  west  line  a few  miles  north  of  Denver,  will  thus  limit  the 
basin  which  can  be  considered  as  available  for  accumulation  of 
of  artesian  supply  for  Denver.  This  basin  has  an  area  of 
12,125,232,200  square  feet. 

The  rainfall  on  this  area  is  fourteen  and  one-half  inches 
per  year.  It  is  difficult  without  elaborate  observations  and 
tests  to  determine  how  much  of  this  enters  the  earth.  In  the 
Paris  basin  it  is,  as  already  mentioned,  twenty-three  per  cent. 
Here  the  evaporation  is  no  doubt  a greater  factor  than  in  Paris, 
but  on  the  other  hand  the  vegetation  will  here  consume  less. 

To  admit  that  twenty  per  cent,  enters  the  earth  here  will 
not  differ  much  from  the  truth  ; this  is  one-fifth  of  the  four- 
teen and  one-half  inches,  equal  to  twenty-four  hundreths  of  a 
foot.  This  gives  2,922,180,000  cubic  feet  of  water,  or  21,916,- 
350,000  gallons  per  year. 

But  rainfall  is  not  the  only  source  of  water  within  this 
basin.  The  many  irrigation  ditches  bring  a great  amount  of 
stored  up  water  from  rainfall  outside  of  the  basin  within  its 
limits.  It  is  estimated  that  of  the  amount  of  water  brought 
in  at  the  upper  part  of  the  High  Line  ditch,  not  more  than 
sixty  per  cent,  is  utilized  for  irrigation.  This  ditch  has  a 
capacity  of  nearly  300  cubic  feet  per  second  during  the  thirty 
maximum  days  ; of  one-third  of  that  capacity  during  the  thirty 
days  before  the.  10th  of  June,  and  of  a half  during  the  thirty 
days  of  irrigation  after  the  10th  of  July. 

The  Table  Mountain  ditch  has  a capacity  of  131J4  cubic 
feet  per  second  during  the  maximum  season,  and  the  Rocky 
Mountain  ditch  of  189  cubic  feet,  and  the  same  ratio  before 
and  after  the  maximum  discharge  as  given  for  the  High  Line 
ditch.  The  capacity  of  each,  the  two  principal  ditches  head- 
ing in  Bear  Creek,  not  exactly  known,  will  be  very  nearly 
equal  to  the  capacity  of  the  Table  Mountain  ditch. 

The  amount  of  water  thus  brought  from  outside  the  basin 


3« 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


within  its  limits  is  according  to  the  above  date  not  less  than 
31,104,000,000  gallons. 

A good  deal  of  this  runs  away  in  visible  streams,  as  is 
amply  demonstrated  by  the  many  gullies,  ravines  and  arroyas, 
which  were  before  known  as  dry  and  now  are  little  rivulets, 
also  by  the  many  springs  that  were  formed  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  ditches,  some  feeding  lakes  and  increasing  their 
extent.  Another  and  large  part  of  the  above  named  amount 
of  water  brought  on  by  ditches  is  evaporated  and  consumed 
by  vegetation,  so  that  not  more  than  was  estimated  of  the 
rainfall,  that  is,  twenty  per  cent.,  percolates  to  the  subsoil. 
This  twenty  per  cent,  would  make  an  additional  supply  of 
6,220,800,000  gallons.  The  subsoil  within  the  described  basin 
absorbs  thus  yearly  from  different  sources  28,137,150,000  gal- 
lons of  water,  or  per  diem  77,088,000  gallons.  If  this  water 
supply  was  held  in  a basin  compressed  on  every  side,  almost  all 
of  it  could  be  brought  to  the  surface  within  a sma,ll  space  by 
artesian  wells. 

Such  a basin  is,  for  instance,  that  in  the  valley  of  San 
Barnardino,  California.  The  number  of  wells  bored  in  San 
Barnardino  and  Los  Angelos  counties  of  an  average  depth  of 
two  hundred  feet  exceeds  1,000.  Some  of  these- wells  irrigate 
one  hundred  to  two  hundred  acres  each. 

The  Paris  basin  can  also  be  considered  as  enclosed  on 
all  sides  and  the  out-croppings  of  permeable  strata  have  in  all 
directions  a slight  dip  toward  the  centre,  but  such  is  not  the 
case  with  the  Denver  basin.  In  the  first  place,  the  sandstone 
layers  cropping  out  near  Golden  are  tilted  up  at  a very  sharp 
angle,  thus  exposing  a minimum  surface  to  the  percolating 
waters.  In  the  second  place,  a good  deal  of  the  water 
reaching  the  subsoil  within  the  extent  of  the  described  basin 
will  follow  the  dip  of  the  bedrock  and  of  the  underlying 
permeable  layers  toward  the  North,  and  thus  flow  away  from 
Denver.  This  dip  to  the  North  can  be  estimated  by  the  fact  that 
the  well  of  W.  Meyers,  twelve  miles  north  of  Denver,  near  the 
Pacific  Railroad  track,  fully  one  hundred  feet  lower  in  altitude 
than  Denver,  reached  the  upper  flow  at  the  same  depth,  three 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


39 


hundred  and  fifteen  feet  from  the  surface,  that  wells  in  Denver 
reached  the  same  water  bearing  stratum.  More  northerly,  above 
Platteville,  the  Platte  increases  in  volume  without  visible  side- 
flows,  and  at  and  above  Platteville  large  bodies  of  underground 
water  are  reached  at  a depth  of  twenty  to  forty  feet. 

A considerable  part  of  the  calculated  supply  is  thus  lost 
for  the  artesian  wells  in  and  around  Denver.  This  amount 
would  be  very  large  if  the  friction  the  water  must  encounter 
on  its  long  journey  to  lower  points  was  not  very  great  in  sand- 
stones. 

Limestones  were  not  mentioned  in  this  report  as  permea- 
ble strata,  because  they  do  not  occur  within  the  extent  of  the 
Denver  basin.  They  are  inferior  to  sandstones  as  an  absorb- 
ent, but  on  the  other  hand,  more  available  as  a water-bearing 
rock,  as  being  far  more  cracked  and  fissured,  the  water  circu- 
lates more  freely  through  them  and  with  less,  friction.  The 
greater  friction  in  sandstones,  although  impeding  the  free  flow 
and  pressure,  is  here  a favorable  factor,  because  it  prevents 
largely  a great  deal  of  water  circulating  in  strata  underlying 
Denver,  from  flowing  away  with  the  dip  to  the  north,  and  it  is 
kept  and  will  rise  to  the  surface  when  reached  by  a bore  hole. 

The  observations  made  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in 
regard  to  the  result  of  artesian  wells,  illustrate  the  effect  of 
friction  very  strikingly.  A granite  ridge  about  I io  miles  from 
Charleston,  crops  out  in  favorable  positions  in  Granite,  Lexing- 
ton, Columbia,  Camden  and  Chesterfield  counties,  at  a height 
of  not  less  than  400  feet  above  sea  level. 

The  Tertiary  beds  of  the  Charleston  basin,  the  Cretaceous 
beds  under  them  and  other  sedimentary  beds  beneath  the  Cre- 
taceous rest  againt  the  eastward  slope  of  the  granite  ridge. 
Their  sandy  layers  drink  in  the  water  filtering  through  the 
surface  sands.  As  all  these  beds  have  a gentle  slope  toward 
the  coast,  the  water  will  follow  them  down  in  their  course. 

The  Coast  Survey  has  shown  that  for  some  fifty  miles  from 
the  shore  off  Charleston  the  bottom  of  the  sea  sinks  gradually 
at  about  the  same  rate  that  the  land  has  been  descending.  At 
a distance  of  fifty  miles  the  sea  reaches  a depth  of  twenty 


40 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


fathoms,  then  there  is  a more  rapid  increase  to  a depth  of  one 
hundred  fathoms  at  about  sixty-five  miles,  followed  by  an  in- 
crease in  eleven  miles,  to  more  than  600  fathoms.  The  Eocene 
and  Cretaceous  formations  encountered  by  wells  therefore 
probably  continue  their  course  under  water  for  over  seventy- 
five  miles,  when  they  are  cut  off  by  the  deep  submarine  valley 
which  forms  the  bed  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  There  is  evidence 
that  the  water  contained  in  them  finds  a discharge  into  the 
sea.  To  this  cause  must  be  attributed  the  springs  of  fresh 
water  that  have  been  observed  to  rise  through  the  salt  water  at 
points  along  the  coast  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  from  the  shore. 

Thus  the  wells  at  Charleston  tap  the  streams  in  transitu , 
and  if  there  was  not  a great  deal  of  friction  encountered  by  the 
waters  through  the  many  miles  of  sand  to  the  Gulf  Stream  out- 
let, the  water  would  not  rise  in  these  wells  to  the  surface. 
The  water  of  several  wells  bored  in  Charleston  to  a depth  of 
about  1,950  feet,  rises  four  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  ground 
which  is  sixteen  feet  above  mean  low  tide.  The  produce  of 
these  wells  is,  on  an  average,  250  gallons  per  minute. 

It  is  not  possible  to  estimate  how  much  of  the  calculated 
amount  of  water  percolating  to  the  subsoil  within  the  limits 
of  the  Denver  basin  is  not  available  for  artesian  wells,  on 
account  of  the  described  peculiar  condition  of  that  basin,  but 
if  so  much  as  nine-tenths  of  the  total  is  lost  as  the  conse- 
quence of  these  conditions,  still  one-tenth  or  7,708,800  gal- 
lons remains  per  diem,  which  can  be  discharged  by  artesian 
wells.  This  amount  could  supply  a population  of  150,000 
with  fifty  gallons  per  capita  daily. 

HOW  MUCH  OF  THAT  UNDERGROUND  DRAINAGE  CAN  BE  BROUGHT 
TO  THE  SURFACE  BY  ARTESIAN  WELLS? 

If  all  wells  were  sunk  to  the  available  water  strata,  proba- 
bly a depth  of  1,500  feet,  and  by  a series  of  casings  all  the 
flows  were  separated  and  brought  to  the  surface  and  the  tubes 
so  well  connected  and  sunk  to  the  top  and  tightly  closed  upon 
each  water  stratum,  not  into  it,  so  that  nearly  all  leakage  was 
prevented,  then  certainly  nearly  all  of  the  above-named  water 


ARTESIAN  WELLS  OF  DENVER. 


41 


supply  could  be  brought  to  the  surface.  But  this  cannot  be 
expected.  A good  many  wells  are  only  run  to  a certain  depth, 
giving  a good  flow,  while  upper  flows  are  shut  off  and  thus  lost 
for  use.  Other  wells  are  subject  to  great  waste  from  bad 
casing,  or  the  casing  is  not  well  set  and  part  of  the  supply  is 
lost  in  upper  layers  of  less  hydrostatic  pressure. 

The  correct  placing  of  the  tubes  is  the  most  essential 
condition  for  success  and  one  of  the  most  delicate  operations 
of  the  art  of  boring. 

It  is  observed  that  the  volume  of  water  flowing  from  a well, 
increases  with  the  diameter  of  the  bore-hole.  This  increase 
is  principally  due  to  the  diminution  of  the  friction  and  resist- 
ance of  the  water  ascending  in  the  tube.  On  many  grounds 
it  would  be  advisable  to  bore  wells  of  a larger  diameter  than 
that  generally  adopted  in  Denver.  For  deep  bore-holes,  prin- 
cipally for  those  exploring  the  sandstone  strata  between  800 
and  1,500  feet  deep,  it  is  certainly  most  necessary,  because  the 
chances  increase  that  a first  casing  cannot  be  pushed  down  to 
the  full  depth,  and  a new  lining  of  smaller  diameter  must  be 
resorted  to. 


Is  1 *) 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


